When we picture labour exploitation, we will often imagine dramatic scenarios of criminal gangs, hidden workplaces, people physically trapped and unable to leave. Few of us visualise a last-minute rota change, dependence on an employer for accommodation, uncertainty about pay, or feeling unable to complain. But exploitation often does not begin with dramatic events. It can emerge gradually, through conditions that look ordinary enough to be unnoticed. The International Labour Organization (ILO) defines Decent Work as ‘productive work for women and men in conditions of freedom, equity, security and human dignity’. This definition outlines that decent work and exploitation are not separate concepts, they sit on a continuum, with fair, secure and dignified work at one end and severe exploitation at the other. Exploitation often emerges not through a single dramatic event, but through the gradual stacking of risks that limit workers’ choices and increase dependence. Working with the UK’s Office of the Director of Labour Market Enforcement (ODLME), the Pentland Centre for Sustainability in Business at Lancaster University brought together academics, NGOs, policymakers and practitioners to explore the drivers of labour exploitation and emerging risks. The work contributed to the evidence base underpinning the new Fair Work Agency (FWA). Within this project, we uncovered that labour exploitation manifests along a continuum and there are many issues that lead up to the extreme exploitation we may envision, such as modern slavery. Understanding these earlier warning signs is essential if exploitation is to be prevented before serious harm has occurred. THE CONTINUUM We often imagine exploitation as a line dividing acceptable work from the unacceptable. However, it is more useful to picture a slope. At one end sits decent work: fair pay, security, predictable conditions and the ability to speak up. Move a little further along and there may be unpaid overtime, insecure scheduling or wages arriving late. A little further down and you could find coercion, debt, threats or dependence on an employer. At the far end sit forced labour and severe exploitation. The journey is rarely a sudden leap from one end to the other. The significance is that early warning signs matter. If exploitation exists on this continuum, then seemingly ‘minor’ problems are not always that. Unpaid wages, unsafe conditions or the fear of questioning an employer do not automatically lead to severe exploitation, but they may shift people further along the slope and narrow the choices available to them. These are some examples of how choices are narrowed for workers: Insecure Hours: In sectors such as hospitality, there is a heavy reliance on Zero Hours Contracts and intermediary apps that promote short shifts and low-paid, flexible labour. Tied Accommodation: Often characterised by overcrowded or unsanitary accommodation where the employer controls the worker’s housing and income simultaneously. Recruitment Debt: Migrant workers frequently pay illegal fees which leads to debt bondage before they even arrive in the UK. Immigration Status: Restrictive visa schemes can tie workers to a single employer, restricting job mobility and increasing financial instability. Isolation and Lack of Transport: Workers in remote areas are often physically isolated, which hides working conditions from inspectors and prevents them accessing support networks. Fear of Losing Work: Workers often accept non-compliant work due to the lack of or fear of alternatives None of these automatically create exploitation, however together they can narrow choices and fall within the continuum of exploitation. STACKING The continuum tells us where exploitation sits, and stacking helps explain how people move along it. Multiple conditions can combine to increase risk. Workers may be able to navigate one challenge, but when several occur simultaneously, options become constrained, risks accumulate and interact. A worker may be dealing with insecure hours, dependence on employer-provided accommodation, debt, language barriers or uncertainty about their rights. None of those factors alone automatically leads to exploitation. Exploitation often develops not through one dramatic event, but through the stacking of circumstances. The combined effect is often greater 24 |
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