Horticulture and Society Written by Susan Stephenson BSc in Applied Plant Biology (Botany) Univ. London 1983. City and guilds: Garden Centre Management, Management and Interior Decor (1984) Management qualifications in training with retail store. Diploma in Horticulture level 2 (RHS General) Distinction. RHS LEVEL 2 UNIT 2
Inspiring Everyone to Grow...
Welcome Message Unit 1 covered plant physiology and function – how plants work and what they do. The next part of your study integrates this knowledge into how plants work in society (and more on how they work in the plant science part). The Unit builds on the knowledge gained in Unit 1 and expands topics as well as introduces ones such as a further study of plant science, planting styles, horticulture, and society and biodiversity.
This topic builds on the plant science knowledge in Unit 1 and we now look at plant adaptations, their value to horticulture, and using plants to create particular habitats and increase biodiversity By the time you have completed this topic, you should understand the structure and function of leaves, stems, roots, flowers, and seeds and how understanding these helps us to create habitats and use plants within horticulture both commercially and in the garden setting. You should understand the detailed structure of a leaf, what each cell and tissue does, and their functions. You should be able to discuss leaf adaptations to a range of Topic 2 Plant Science 11
situations and how they enable plants to climb, reduce of some species, and so on. You should understand and be able to explain the function of particular tissues such as aerenchyma, and adaptations including succulence and leaf rolling. You should be able to explain how horticulturalists use adaptations, for example using small-leaved plants to create masses of foliage when clipped and so on. For stems, you should be able to discuss their structure, functions, and adaptions. You should understand the difference between plants that have secondary thickening and those that do not and the differences between monocotyledons and eudicotyledons (this relates to leaves, flowers, and roots also). You also should understand stems and propagation, protection, and adaptations for different habitats. You should, at this stage be able to describe root structure and the function of the different cells and tissues. You should be able to explain root adaptations and how these may impact growing. You should be able to describe roots in different plant groups – eudicotyledons and monocotyledons for example and adaptations to different environmental niches. You should also be able to explain the development of adventitious roots and how roots can be used in propagation. The role of roots in storage (for perennation) and reproduction should also be understood. You should be able to relate life cycle, roots, and adaptations to horticulture. For example, carrots are biennials so at the end of their first year, they store sugars and carbohydrates in their swollen tap root in order to survive the winter and grow again next spring. We harvest them at the end of the first growing season when they have made their storage organs for perennation (swollen tap roots). If carrots
are left too long, the root will shrivel as the stores are converted into energy for growth in early spring. Plant selection in relation to their rooting characteristics should be fully understood. Flowers are part of the sexual reproduction process, and their structure and function should be understood. You should also be able to clearly explain the differences between different flower arrangements, the difference between monocotyledon and eudicotyledon flowers, and how flowers are adapted in form and structure for different pollinators. You should understand the concepts of imperfect and perfect flowers how plants ensure cross-pollination by dioecious characteristics, and the development of different flower parts at different times. You should be able to clearly define pollination and fertilisation and the difference between cross and self-pollination. You should then be able to explain the advantages of cross-pollination, different pollination vectors, and the differences between wind and insect-pollinated flowers. This knowledge should be related to your understanding of plant selection and choosing plants that have flowers adapted for pollinators you want to attract (e.g. insects). The flower structure should be related to specific pollinators e.g. a corymb allows insects to freely move across the inflorescence, legumes provide a landing platform, and are often adapted to specific pollinators such as bumble bees and so on. You should be able to relate to different subjects within the topic to discuss creating habitats for wildlife, choosing appropriate plants for particular settings and conditions, the importance of provenance, and how adaptations may impact ecology.
You should also understand the concept of totipotency and its implication within different horticultural settings for example, how small pieces of pernicious perennial weeds may regenerate to create a bigger problem if they are chopped up using a rotavator. Climate change is affecting plant choice in the UK, and you should understand how the origins of plants relate to appropriate choices for new plantings. Seeds are the product of sexual reproduction in plants, and you should be able to discuss different types of seed, orthodox and recalcitrant, and their different storage capacity. Dormancy should be understood and seed dormancy and its value to horticulture. You should be able to discuss germination requirements and triggers, and how horticulturalists can treat seeds in order to mimic natural dormancy breaking.
Different seed dispersal mechanisms should be understood, and you should be able to explain the full range of these, from leaving the parent plant to being in a position to germinate – for example, seeds that spread by attachment cling to the fur of an animal and fall or are groomed off away from the parent plant where they may germinate if the conditions are suitable. You should be able to explain that in angiosperms, seeds are enclosed in fruit and describe fruit types and formation. You should also be able to describe the conditions that affect the storage of fruit and seeds. The final element is growth habit adaptations. For this, you should be able to understand different growth habits and forms of plants, for example, ground-hugging, dwarf, layering, perennials – herbaceous and woody, trees and shrubs, climbers, and deciduous and evergreen plants. You should be able to name plants that fit in all the categories. Biodiversity and the relationship between it and plant choice should be understood and you should be able to discuss plant choice, using many different elements, and the impact this has on successful growth, establishment, and reducing the need for amelioration. This may feel like a lot of knowledge and learning but most of the above builds on the foundations laid in Unit 1 and a lot of it will help selecting and maintaining plants easier because understanding their growth habits, requirements, and structure helps growers to be able to understand why some plants succeed, why some might fail and so continually improve their knowledge of plant science and relationship to plant selection and growing.
draw an approximate timeline of the development of garden styles in the UK, from Renaissance, and Jacobean to English landscape and beyond right up to modern gardens. The main characteristics and designers of English Landscape style should be understood as well as some gardens using the style. Picturesque, Gardenesque, Victorian, Arts and Craft styles should be understood, and you should be able to name some gardens that have this as their basis. Key designers include: Repton, Brown, Jekyll, and Robinson. In the twentieth century, garden styles became more diverse, and you should be able to discuss the development of smaller gardens and designers including John Brookes, Silvia Crowe, and Frederick Gibberd. By the end of this unit you should be able to describe characteristics of a range of planting styles and design characteristics as well as the development of increased understanding of how our growing methods impact biodiversity and sustainability. You should understand the development of gardens from early gardens including Persian style, Greek and Roman gardens, Monastic, Paradise, and Medieval gardens. For each of these, you should be able to list their chief characteristics. You should be able to give the features of Renaissance gardens and name some gardens where this style is used. In addition, you should be able to Topic 2 Planting Styles
You should be able to explain how understanding biodiversity and ecology has changed how garden designers think and the style of modern gardens. Gardens with clear heritage have an impact on how they are maintained, and you should be able to discuss limitations of design within historic gardens as well as how large heritage gardens can become involved in Biodiversity Action Plans (BAPS) and the encouragement of native flora and fauna. You should be able to relate historical gardens and their influence on modern designers. Are historical gardens sustainable, how can high maintenance be kept up in the modern era? You should also be able to discuss formal planting – its characteristics, limitations, and advantages. There should be an understanding of how formal gardens are laid out and maintained. What shapes are used in formal gardens? What kind of plants and how are these grown and maintained? Are formal layouts sustainable today or not? Informal garden design and layout should also be understood – the shapes used, the characteristics, how plants are grown, and whether
these kinds of gardens are sustainable. Regular shapes (formal) and irregular shapes (informal) used within designs should be discussed and also how do you plant in each type of garden? How can you rectify features or plantings in a formal or informal garden? What is plant association and how do we use this in garden design and layouts? You should be able to discuss some good associations both from an ecological and horticultural point of view. You should also be able to discuss colour use, forms, shapes, height, and the different purposes of different types of planting – for example, what type of planting could you use in a formal layout to delineate different parts of the garden? What about an informal site? You should understand the seasonal interest in garden settings and how each season has plants that can be used to great effect. Regarding plant uses, you should be able to explain the impact of planting on height, wildlife, structure, horizontal and vertical planes, screening, and boundaries. Make sure you can discuss the ecosystem services of plants and can name particular plants regarding this. For example, boundaries planted with Eleagnus x submacrophylla are pollution tolerant and filter noise as well. Hairy-leaved plants can filter particulates well. How are plants used in urban settings to improve air quality? How are they used to reduce erosion? How is crop pollination assisted with plantings and how can plants be used to improve water quality?
You should also understand provenance – the selection of right plant, right place because you understand the origin of a plant, so you can choose, for example, Mediterranean plants to suit a dry, freely draining area in the garden and a bog side plant for damp areas. Edible landscapes should be understood – what does edible landscape mean and how do growers ensure sustainability in edible landscapes? What organisations support local growing initiatives? How are herbs grown as part of the edible landscape? What planting styles suit edible landscapes and what plant adaptations will help them become successful? Community orchards, fruit growing, community gardening, potager gardens and container growing should all be understood in relation to edible plants. Plant selection according to the site, supports, maintenance, and how plants can be used to help control pest populations in the soil should be understood (rotation, companion planting, and IPM for example).
What is organic growing, what are the organisations that certify organic status and what practices might a grower adapt to become organic? What are the personal and social benefits of community and edible landscape gardening? Finally, you should understand plant life cycles – annual, biennial, perennial (herbaceous and woody), and ephemeral and be able to discuss how these might be used in short-term planning – bedding schemes for example. Temporary displays including Maize mazes should be understood as well as summer and spring bedding schemes and plants used for these. Annual meadows, pictorial meadows, and perennial meadows should be also understood, and you should be able to explain the differences and characteristics of each. How can growers reduce their carbon footprint when planning and growing plants? For example, is it better to grow annuals from seed or keep tender perennials for display over winter in a protected environment? There is a lot to cover and a huge amount of diversity to comprehend and the unit covers more in detail, but the links should be relatively easy – from historical gardens to modern-day styles, a greater understanding of ecosystems and sustainability and the influence of this understanding on how we grow plants.
Horticulture has a huge impact on society and recently, this has become more recognised. The benefits of growing plants on mental health, well-being, and physical health, as well as the social benefits, are becoming better documented. By the end of this unit, you should be able to discuss the benefits of horticulture physical health. How does activity benefit physical health and how can gardening reduce risks of certain illnesses and conditions and what are these? Which parts of the body benefit from particular activities you might undertake in horticulture? Topic 3 Horticulture and Society
What about mental health? You should be able to discuss the positive impacts of horticultural activities on mental well-being. How can green spaces help people to unwind and de-stress? How does horticulture benefit people socially? What activities involve other people and how are these activities good for mental health and sociability? How do gardens connect us with nature and allow us to think outside our immediate problems or difficulties? What about SHT (Social and Therapeutic Horticulture)? How does this benefit people in terms of recovery from illness, improving mental and physical well-being, and connecting to the bigger picture and other people? You should be able to discuss the elements of sensory gardens and how these benefit users. How might you engage sights, smell, touch, and hearing within a horticultural setting?
How does biodiversity help connect people to the bigger picture and make them think outside of their immediate problems? How might we encourage wildlife to come into our green spaces? Historically, how have green spaces been used for the benefit of the wider population? What about women in horticulture -you should be able to discuss a rough timescale of when women became accepted within horticulture, from the setting up of the Edinburgh School of Gardening for Women in 1902 (horticultural colleges were men -only until then) to current day levels of acceptance. Can you explain the WFGA, and what it was set up to achieve? What about equal pay? When did women begin to get the same pay as men within horticulture when they worked as gardeners, for example? How did the Second World War affect women’s place in horticulture? You should also have covered and be able to discuss how horticulture benefits the environment. What are the main types of stored carbon and how can this understanding affect how we grow and what we plant (trees, for example – what is their role in carbon capture and storage?) What are the factors that affect carbon absorption by a tree? Can you explain these? What are the ‘green gains’ of planting hedges, plants, and trees in cities? (transpiration cools the air, shade is provided, they can absorb carbon and connect people to nature, for example). How can horticulturalists make good choices by weighing up the pros and cons of particular trees in city settings? Oak, for example, is very good at filtering particles, but an oak tree gives off a lot of pollen and volatile
organic compounds, so may not be the best trees to select for cities. They also grow very slowly. Male Ginkgo bilobas are chosen because they make excellent street trees and with the male trees, you do not get the dropping of fruit such as with the female. In cities and elsewhere, green roofs and walls can be used to help carbon absorption and trees will also help regulate air temperature. Horticulture has negative impacts on the environment – these should be understood, and you should be able to discuss them. Many negatives are not immediately obvious. Materials used in growing mediums may have been shipped from abroad, leaving a large carbon footprint. Nurseries may use non-recyclable pots, again, leaving a wasteful and carbon-rich imprint. Peat may be extracted for growing mediums – peat is a rare and valuable resource and peat bogs need to be conserved. Transport of plants and materials can be very costly in terms of carbon footprint. Driving to nurseries far away instead of locally can increase the carbon footprint of plants too. Garden machinery requires fuel for energy to operate – this has a carbon footprint. Water, heat, and irrigation, all take resources. So how can we manage horticulture to be better in terms of carbon footprints? Things like making sure a nursery recycles pots, does not use peat, is local if possible, and uses resources wisely can all help. In terms of equality and diversity, you should try to choose suppliers where staff are treated equally, and there is no child labour involved (things like this are difficult to check in terms of products sourced
abroad but we should try). This is the first step of sustainable horticulture, and you should, by the end of this unit, be able to discuss other ways to increase sustainability including minimising flood risks, composting successfully, maintaining carbon levels in the soil (using no-dig, for example, which is also Best Practice) and avoiding plastics that are not biodegradable in packaging. Many practices such as green walls and roofs are a reaction to climate change and you should be able to discuss how new styles of planting, new ideas, and innovations, are reducing the negative impact of horticulture. Horticulture is a big part of our economy. You should be able to discuss the importance of horticulturally related industries including landscaping, retail, tourism, arboriculture, garden goods maintenance, and ornamental plants production. Of course, food production is one of the biggest areas for the economy too and you should be able to discuss the importance of this for UK horticulture. The final area you should be able to discuss and explain are the community aspects of horticulture – growing clubs in schools and the benefits for children. Initiatives including Grow Well and Grow Social as well as Garden Organic’s Education Programme should be understood. What are the benefits of introducing children to horticulture in school perhaps? Social enterprises, therapeutic horticulture, Britain in Bloom, community allotments and kitchen gardens should all be subjects you can discuss, including particular local projects (e.g. Fareshare or Foodcycle. This is a unit that covers a wide range of horticultural impacts, from climate to social well-being and the wide impact of horticulture should be understood from many different aspects.
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This is a big topic and very current, so make sure you read about methods used to improve biodiversity in horticultural settings, as well as using the course materials. By the time you complete this unit, you should be able to discuss food webs, and how plants are an important part of most. You should be able to explain what is meant by the terms consumer, decomposer, and autotroph. You should have an idea of how food webs work. You should also be able to explain exclusive or monophagous relationships and how weeds and pests can also provide biodiversity. You should be able to relate biodiversity to weed-controlling regulations and understand the Topic 4 Biodiversity
importance of Acts including the Weeds Act 1959. Planting for biodiversity is an area you should familiarise yourself with and you should be able to discuss how plantings within a garden can help support an increase in biodiversity and how this impacts the wider environment. The ecosystems within a site, from shade to undergrowth and low-growing plants to tall trees, and their relationships within a site should be understood, along with the potential for biodiversity and the provision of habits by all of these. Wildflower meadows in particular can be a place where biodiversity is increased, and you should have a good understanding of the species used and what meadows provide in terms of wildlife habitat, biodiversity, and what services they provide within the ecosystem. The role of botanic gardens, and seed banks should be understood and how conservation works in horticultural settings. The plant choices within a garden and their usefulness in terms of supporting biodiversity should be understood – choosing simple flowers, for example, over complex, double flowerheaded varieties. Community groups including the Woodland Trust, RHS, Orchard Project, Plantlife, and others should be understood in terms of their roles in conservation and biodiversity. The impact of climate change is a major topic and one that is important to understand. You should be able to discuss the impact climate change is likely to have on UK horticulture – pollinators moving north, some UK crops not doing so well, growers needing to look at other habitats and select plants and crops
can withstand the changes in the climate, including extremes are all areas you should read about and be able to discuss. How will climate change affect photosynthesis, respiration, and tolerance of plants to drought, for example? How will fruit and flower production be likely to be affected? All big questions that should be understood and you should be able to discuss these using resources and further reading, as well as your course materials. How will climate change affect pests? We may get new pests and need to be able to deal with these. Will UK predators survive to control UK pests? What are the likely overall impacts of climate change on the UK over the next twenty years or more? You should also be able to discuss the creation of habitats within horticultural settings. Gardens as wildlife habitats, including the provision of different kinds of cover, shelter, food, and nesting areas. What can UK growers do to improve gardens for wildlife? What practices favour wildlife and how will these work alongside the production of crops and flowers? Which plants provide wildlife corridors and how can growers help with this? Why are wildlife corridors important? All big questions and you should be able to discuss these. There are no set answers because things are yet to be seen with regard to the impact of climate change but as a horticulturalist, you should be able to discuss a range of possibilities. Citizen Science is becoming an important area in UK horticulture. What projects are part of this? For example, The RSPB Big Garden Birdwatch or the work of Butterfly Conservation.
How are populations monitored and recorded? Biodiversity Action Plans (BAPS) are an important area, and you should be able to explain what these are, their aims, and how they are put into practice. What is a priority species and habitat? How do Local Biodiversity Action Plans relate to gardens and which priority habitats and species can these include? What is the aim of an LBAP? There are big questions and few answers in this last part of the course, but for horticulture industry workers, it is important to understand how climate change and various initiatives are helping to understand and create habits suitable for supporting UK wildlife and encouraging biodiversity.
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