situations and how they enable plants to climb, reduce of some species, and so on. You should understand and be able to explain the function of particular tissues such as aerenchyma, and adaptations including succulence and leaf rolling. You should be able to explain how horticulturalists use adaptations, for example using small-leaved plants to create masses of foliage when clipped and so on. For stems, you should be able to discuss their structure, functions, and adaptions. You should understand the difference between plants that have secondary thickening and those that do not and the differences between monocotyledons and eudicotyledons (this relates to leaves, flowers, and roots also). You also should understand stems and propagation, protection, and adaptations for different habitats. You should, at this stage be able to describe root structure and the function of the different cells and tissues. You should be able to explain root adaptations and how these may impact growing. You should be able to describe roots in different plant groups – eudicotyledons and monocotyledons for example and adaptations to different environmental niches. You should also be able to explain the development of adventitious roots and how roots can be used in propagation. The role of roots in storage (for perennation) and reproduction should also be understood. You should be able to relate life cycle, roots, and adaptations to horticulture. For example, carrots are biennials so at the end of their first year, they store sugars and carbohydrates in their swollen tap root in order to survive the winter and grow again next spring. We harvest them at the end of the first growing season when they have made their storage organs for perennation (swollen tap roots). If carrots
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